One of the most common types of stress-related headaches is called a cervicogenic headache. This type of headache is the result of referred pain from boney or soft tissue structures in the neck. When your upper trapezius goes tense from stress and one of the attachment sites of the trapezius is the base of your skull, what do you think the end result could be? That’s right. A cervicogenic headache. When it comes to special testing such as XRays or MRI, there is no clear relationship between degenerative changes of the discs or cervical vertebrae and headaches (Ylinen et al 2010). As a result, most of our assessment comes from functional and palpation testing of the cervical joints and soft tissue. Conservative management of neck and headache pain often includes passive therapies such as the many specialized soft tissue techniques that we offer at OrthoWell Physical Therapy. But what does the research say about exercise-based interventions? Do neck exercises help cases of cervicogenic headache? According to Ylinen et al 2010, they certainly do. The strength group performed one set of 15 reps (in four directions) of cervical resistance training using rubber bands, upper extremity dumbbell exercises, and neck stretches 5x/week in combination with 4 hands-on physical therapy treatments. The control group performed only daily neck stretches, cardio 3x/week, and no physical therapy. What they found, at a 12 month follow-up, was that headache pain decreased by 69% in the strength group and only 37% in the control group. A more detailed analysis of the study can be found at the Theraband Academy website. In conclusion, the evidence-based combination of hands-on physical therapy, exercise, and patient education would be the best approach to resolving cervicogenic headaches.
So what are the BEST evidence-based Core exercises?
Evidence from random controlled trials of people suffering from low back pain show that core stabilization exercises result in significant improvements in pain and function(5,7) . However, the most effective combination of which muscles to target and which stabilization methods to utilize are still debated(1-11). One technique that has been suggested is abdominal hallowing or “drawing-in” your navel to activate the transversus abdominis (TrA) muscle. This technique has been shown to increase the cross-sectional area of the TrA(10), however, many exercise scientists are now advocating a method called “abdominal bracing”(demonstrated in my last post) in which ALL the abdominal muscles are recruited instead of just one(11). It should be the goal of core exercises to activate as many torso muscles as possible in order to ensure spinal stability and to prepare our bodies for the dynamic and often complex movements that occur during our daily activities. So what does the research say about which exercises activate which muscles the best?
Numerous studies have used EMG to determine the greatest electrical activity of torso muscles during various core stabilization exercises. In Escamilla et al(3), they used surface or skin electrodes to compare exercises such as traditional crunches, sit-ups, reverse crunches, and hanging knee-ups using straps to exercises using an Ab Roller/ Power Wheel and a device called the Ab Revolutionizer. What they found was that the activation of the upper and lower rectus abdominis(the “washboard” muscle) as well as both the internal and external obliques was the greatest with Power Wheel roll-outs and hanging knee-ups with straps. Because research indicates that the internal obliques are activated in the same manner(within 15%) as the tranversus abdominis(3), we can assume that these results apply to the TrA as well. The activation was least with a traditional sit-up! In Okubo et al(8), they used both surface electrodes and intramuscular fine-wire to compare curl-ups, side planks, front planks, bridges, and bird dogs. What they found was that the TrA was activated the greatest during front planks with opposite arm and leg raise and that multifidus activation was greatest with bridging. Although core stabilization exercises should be performed in multiple planes of motion, these two studies highlight the enhanced activation that occurs during “face down” exercises such as front planks and roll outs.
The functional progression of exercises as well as training in all planes of motion are important aspects of OrthoWell’s core stabilization program. Our program will uncover your weaknesses and maximize your strength by progressing through successive levels of difficulty in all directions of movement ie anterior, posterior, lateral, and rotatory. Optimal development of the “local” system ie your functional neutral position and bracing technique(my last post) should occur before attempting to train the “global” or big muscle system. Unfortunately, most people over-train the global system and need to be re-educated. So be patient as we take you by the “core” and steer you in the BEST, evidence-based direction.
The following videos are examples of some of our functional progressions for each plane of motion(sorry for the occasional “sideways” view). I demonstrate a particular exercise and then follow with an exercise of progressive difficulty. Functional progression is very individualized and requires skilled observation to determine competency. Many thanks to two of my peers, Mike Reinold,PT and Eric Cressey for being very helpful in this regard.
Anterior Core Stabilization Exercises
Anterior/Posterior Core Stabilization Exercises
Posterior Core Stabilization Exercises
Lateral Core Stabilization Exercises
Rotatory Core Stabilization Exercises
1. Allison GT, Mo4444rris SL, Lay B. Feedforward responses of transversus abdominis are directionally specific and act asymmetrically: Implications for core stability theories. JOSPT. 2008; 38: 228-237.
2. Ekstrom RA, Donatelli RA, Carp KC. Electromyographic analysis of core trunk, hip, and thigh muscles during 9 rehabilitation exercises. JOSPT. 2007; 37: 754-762.
3. Escamilla RF, Babb E, Dewitt R. Electromyographic analysis of traditional and nontraditional abdominal exercises: Implications for rehabilitation and training. Physical Therapy. 2006; 86: 656-671.
4. Faries MD, Greenwood M. Core Training: Stabilizing the Confusion. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2007; 29: 10-25.
5. Hall L, Tsao H, MacDonald D. Immediate effects of co-contraction training on motor control of the trunk muscles in people with recurrent low back pain. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2007; 19:763-773.
6. Hides J, Stanton W, McMahon S. Effect of stabilization training of multifidus muscle cross-sectional area among young elite cricketers with low back pain. JOSPT. 2008; 38: 101-108.
7. Hodges P, Kaigle A, Holm S. Intervertebral stiffness of the spine is increased by evoked contraction of transversus abdominis and the diaphragm: In Vivo porcine studies. SPINE. 2003; 28: 2594-2601.
8. Okubo Y, Kaneoka K, Imai A. Electromyographic analysis of transversus abdominis and lumbar multifidus using wire electrodes during lumbar stabilization exercises. JOSPT. 2010; 40: 743-750.
9. Stanford M. Effectiveness of specific lumbar stabilization exercises: A single case study. Journal of Manual and Manipulation Therapy. 2002; 10: 40-46.
10. Critchley, D. Instructing pelvic floor contraction facilitates transversus abdominis thickness increase during low-abdominal hollowing. Physiother. Res.Int. 7:65–75. 2002.
11. Kavic, N., S. Grenier, S.M. McGill. Determining the stabilizing role of individual torso muscles during rehabilitation exercises. Spine. 29:1254–1265. 2004a.
It is defined as the center or “core” of your body. It is the “powerhouse” around which all limb movement is performed. It consists of 29 pairs of muscles as well as boney, ligamentous, and discs structures that support the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex in order to stabilize the spine, pelvis, and kinetic chain during functional movements. In short, it’s pretty important!
What is the function of the Core?
The core functions to provide both stability and mobility. It can generate forces in order to complete a sit-up as well as provide spinal stability as you reach your arms overhead. The muscles that are most important in providing core stability can be divided into two groups: the primary stabilizers and the secondary stabilizers. The primary stabilizers are the transversus abdominis in the deep abdominal region and the multifidus muscles which are deep in your back and attach directly to each vertebrae in the spine. The secondary stabilizers are the obliques in the front, the quadratus lumborum & lumbar paraspinals in the back, the pelvic floor muscles at the bottom, and the diaphragm at the top.
So what does the research say about the Core muscles?
Current research has promoted the transversus abdominis (TrA) and the multifidus as the primary stabilizers of the spine.(1,4,6,8,9) The TrA is the deepest of the abdominal muscles and, when contracted, it increases tension of the thoraco-lumbar fascia, it increases intra-abdominal pressure, and increases spinal stiffness in order to resist the forces that act upon the spine(4,7) The multifidi span from 1 to 3 vertebral levels and attach one vertebrae directly to another. As a result, they provide the largest contribution to inter-segmental stability.(4,9) The TrA and multifidus have been found to activate prior to limb movement in order to prepare and stabilize the spine(1,4,9) and it has been shown that the EMG activity of the TrA may be delayed in patients suffering with chronic low back pain (LBP).(7) The TrA is activated regardless of the direction of trunk or limb movement(4) and this is the reason why performing spinal stabilization exercises in multiple planes of motion can be so effective. A significant reduction in the cross-sectional area ie atrophy of the multifidi as well as poor motor control of the TrA has been associated with patients with acute or chronic LBP.(6.9) Patients with LBP who did not receive exercises specific for the multifidi continued to have atrophy of the multifidi even after 6 weeks of being painfree as compared to the increases in multifidi cross-sectional area in those that performed the exercises.(6,9) In other words, just because your pain is gone does not mean that your muscles are functionally recovered. One of our primary objectives in physical therapy is to prevent FUTURE episodes of LBP! So how do we do it?
How do we test the Core?
Unfortunately, there is not a research-proven, valid testing regimen for core stability. However, Shirley Sahrmann has proposed a test called the Sahrmann Core Stability Test which is the most common test of function. It involves the use of a pressure cuff placed under the lumbar spine to measure one’s ability to maintain pelvic neutral while performing five exercises of progressive difficulty. The chart is included below.
How do we perform spinal stabilization exercises?
In physical therapy, we utilize the concept of a neutral spine while performing spinal stabilization exercises. Every joint has what we call a “resting” or “open-packed position”. It is the position of a joint when the joint spacing is maximized and the resistance from boney or ligamentous structures is the least. These are the fundamentals of Orthopedic Manual Therapy. In the following video, we will review the concept of the Functional Neutral Position as well describe how to activate the transverses abdominus and multifidi muscles in mutiple positions.
NEXT POST:
So what are the BEST evidence-based, core stabilization exercises?
1. Allison GT, Morris SL, Lay B. Feedforward responses of transversus abdominis are directionally specific and act asymmetrically: Implications for core stability theories. JOSPT. 2008; 38: 228-237.
2. Ekstrom RA, Donatelli RA, Carp KC. Electromyographic analysis of core trunk, hip, and thigh muscles during 9 rehabilitation exercises. JOSPT. 2007; 37: 754-762.
3. Escamilla RF, Babb E, Dewitt R. Electromyographic analysis of traditional and nontraditional abdominal exercises: Implications for rehabilitation and training. Physical Therapy. 2006; 86: 656-671.
4. Faries MD, Greenwood M. Core Training: Stabilizing the Confusion. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2007; 29: 10-25.
5. Hall L, Tsao H, MacDonald D. Immediate effects of co-contraction training on motor control of the trunk muscles in people with recurrent low back pain. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2007; 19:763-773.
6. Hides J, Stanton W, McMahon S. Effect of stabilization training of multifidus muscle cross-sectional area among young elite cricketers with low back pain. JOSPT. 2008; 38: 101-108.
7. Hodges P, Kaigle A, Holm S. Intervertebral stiffness of the spine is increased by evoked contraction of transversus abdominis and the diaphragm: In Vivo porcine studies. SPINE. 2003; 28: 2594-2601.
8. Okubo Y, Kaneoka K, Imai A. Electromyographic analysis of transversus abdominis and lumbar multifidus using wire electrodes during lumbar stabilization exercises. JOSPT. 2010; 40: 743-750.
9. Stanford M. Effectiveness of specific lumbar stabilization exercises: A single case study. Journal of Manual and Manipulation Therapy. 2002; 10: 40-46.
So why is it that 80% of people at some point will experience low back pain? Is it that we were never meant to evolve from knuckle dragging or is there a better reason? The answer to this question has more to do with common sense than with evolution. What do you think would happen to your car if you didn’t put oil in the engine? Common sense. Right? So why is it difficult for some people to understand the importance that proper posture, body mechanics and exercise play in spinal disorders such as neck and low back pain, herniated discs, and sciatica? Let me explain. First, let’s think of the discs in between your vertebrae as water balloons. When you squeeze one side of the balloon, the fluid will move in exactly the opposite direction. Right? However, physics tells us that when a pressure is exerted on a closed system, the pressure is equal in all directions . This would be true for a “healthy” system. So, yes, when the disc is healthy and strong, the pressure exerted on the disc is the same in every direction. However, what if one of the “walls” of the system is weaker due to chronic overuse and microtrauma? Think about the daily sloucher at the computer.
The more we are slumped, or flexed forward, the more stress that occurs to the back part of the disc. Remember, if we pinch the front, the fluid moves toward the back. In this regard, evolution is cruel, because the back part of the disc is the thinnest and the most susceptible to trauma. Bingo! The origins of a bulging disc. Why is it that some people with low back pain have an MRI and it doesn’t show a bulging disc? Oh, and by the way, radiologists use the terms “bulging”, “herniated”, and “protruded” interchangeably. Some even go as far as saying “there is bulging, but no herniation”. Huh? The proper medical terms would be protrusion, extrusion, and sequestration. I hope you’re not totally confused now! So what if the radiologist report says “only mild bulging” of the disc? Does this mean that the disc is definitely not the origin of the pain? Absolutely not! Although there is no clear relationship between the extent of disc protrusion and the degree of clinical symptoms, the periphery or annulus fibrosis of the disc is highly innervated. In fact, Bogduk in 1981 reported that “nerve fibres were found up to a depth equivalent to one third of the total thickness of the anulus fibrosus”. Edgar in 2008 confirmed this deep penetration of sensory nerves into the disc. Therefore, any trauma or even “mild bulging” to the peripheral layers of the disc could elicit pain. Kuslich confirmed that probing and electrical stimulation to the annular fibers could produce local LBP, but not leg pain. However, Ohnmeiss discovered that partial or full thickness anular tears, with or without disc bulging/herniation, can reproduce sciatica symptoms in about 60% of properly screened patients with chronic lower back pain . So then, what is sciatica? It is referred pain down your leg from a pinched or irritated nerve or from a traumatized disc or facet joint. The facet joints are the “winglike” structures in the picture below and, as you can see, the spinal nerves exit the spinal canal right next to the disc. Hersch showed that injection of an “irritant” such as saline into the facet joints of the spine can cause LBP. In addition, McCallwas able to reproduce sciatic symptoms with facet joint injections. It has also been well documented that a protruded disc can cause a “pinched nerve” and associated sciatic symptoms. Ouch!
So what does all this evidence mean for you? It means that the source of your low back pain is not always definitive. It can be multifaceted. In most cases, a thorough physical therapy evaluation will determine your neural sensitivities and functional impairments. Common sense tells us that avoiding postural stresses will place the body in an optimal position to heal. Appropriate manual therapy such as joint & soft tissue mobilization and manual traction as well as evidence-based spinal stabilization exercises should alleviate and prevent reoccurrence of symptoms. These will be the topics of the next two blog posts. So stay tuned!
I have received several comments from bloggers that “there is no evidence” regarding the effectiveness of Kinesiology Taping or KinesioTaping Techniques. I would like to share with you some very detailed clinical study outcomes that are present, and copied here, from the SpiderTech website. This post is definitely more clinical in nature, but it can certainly help any interested patient or practitioner in understanding the evidence behind the WHY and HOW of KinesioTaping.
The Clinically Proven Effectiveness of Kinesiology Taping
Taping is widely used in the field of rehabilitation as both a means of treatment and prevention of sports-related injuries. The essential function of most tape is to provide support during movement. Some believe that tape serves to enhance proprioception and, therefore, to reduce the occurrence of injuries. The most commonly used tape applications are done with non-stretch tape. The rationale is to provide protection and support to a joint or a muscle. Utilizing existing stretch tape, investigators have shown clinical improvement in patients with grade III acromioclavicular separations, anterior shoulder impingement, and hemiplegic shoulders. In recent years, kinesiology tape has become increasingly popular as a therapeutic treatment option in North America and Europe. Kinesiology tape was developed in the 1970’s and was engineered to mimic the qualities of human skin. It has roughly the same thickness as the epidermis and can be stretched between 130% and 140% of its resting length longitudinally. The application techniques were developed through the use of applied kinesiology taping, which logically gave the therapy and material its name. The tape reportedly has several benefits, depending on the amount of stretch applied to the tape during application: (1) to provide a positional stimulus through the skin, (2) to align fascial tissues, (3) to create more space by lifting fascia and soft tissue above the area of pain/inflammation, (4) to provide sensory stimulation to assist or limit motion, and (5) to assist in the removal of edema by directing exudates toward a lymph duct. The clinical information on kinesiology tape suggests improved function, pain, stability, and proprioception in pediatrics and patients with acute patellar dislocation, stroke, ankle and shoulder pain, and trunk dysfunction. The respective information comes from case series and pilot studies, the most important of which are summarized in the following:
In a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, clinical trial using a repeated-measures design Thelen et al. investigated the clinical efficacy of kinesiology tape for shoulder pain. Forty-two subjects clinically diagnosed with rotator cuff tendonitis/impingement were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: A therapeutic kinesiology tape group or a sham kinesiology tape group. The therapeutic kinesiology tape group showed immediate improvement in pain-free should abduction after tape application. It was concluded that kinesiology tape may be of some assistance to clinicians in improving pain-free active range of motion immediately after tape application for patients with shoulder pain.
In 2009, Fraizer et al. examined in a case series the clinical outcomes for patients with shoulder disorders who were treated with a comprehensive physical therapy program that included kinesiology taping techniques. Five patients were treated with this taping method among other interventions. All patients demonstrated clinically important improvements in function. The authors concluded that kinesiology taping should be considered as an optional clinical adjunct in the treatment of shoulder pain as part of a comprehensive physical therapy regimen.
Also in 2007, Yoshida et al. studied the effect of kinesiology tape on lower trunk range of motions. Thirty healthy subjects with no history of lower trunk or back issues participated in the study. Based on their findings, the authors determined that the application of kinesiology tape applied over the lower trunk may increase active lower trunk flexion range of motion.
In 2007, Lie et al. studied the application of kinesiology tape in patients with lateral epicondylitis. The experimental results indicated that wearing kinesiology tape causes the motions of muscle on the ultrasonic images to be enhanced which the authors believe to indicate that the performance of muscle motion was improved.
The effect of taping using kinesiology tape in an acute pediatric rehabilitation setting was investigated in a 2006 pilot study by Yasukawa et al. The purpose of this pilot study was to describe the use of the kinesiology tape for the upper extremity in enhancing functional motor skills in children admitted into an acute rehabilitation program. Fifteen children (4 to 16 years of age), who were receiving rehabilitation services participated in this study. The improvement from pre- to post-taping was statistically significant. These results suggest that kinesiology tape may be associated with improvements in upper-extremity motor control and function in the acute pediatric rehabilitation setting. The authors concluded that the use of kinesiology tape as an adjunct to treatment may assist with the goal-focused occupational therapy treatment during the child’s inpatient stay.
In 2009, Tsai et al. evaluated the effects of a bandage replacement by kinesiology tape in decongestive lymphatic therapy (DLT) for breast-cancer-related lymphoedema. Forty-one patients with unilateral breast-cancer-related lymphoedema for at least 3 months were included in this study. The study results suggested that kinesiology tape could replace the bandage in DLT, and it could be an alternative choice for the breast-cancer-related lymphoedema patient with poor short-stretch bandage compliance after 1-month intervention.
As published in the journal Top Stroke Rehab., Jaraczewska et al. indicated that kinesiology tape could improve the upper extremity function in the adult with hemiplegia. The article discusses various therapeutic methods used in the treatment of stroke patients to achieve a functional upper extremity. The only taping technique for various upper extremity conditions that had previously been described in the literature is the athletic taping technique. The authors concluded that kinesiology taping in conjunction with other therapeutic interventions could facilitate or inhibit muscle function, support joint structure, reduce pain, and provide proprioceptive feedback to achieve and maintain preferred body alignment. Restoring trunk and scapula alignment after the stroke is critical in developing an effective treatment program for the upper extremity in hemiplegia.
The clinical efficacy of kinesiology taping in reducing edema of the lower limbs in patients treated with the Ilizarov method was investigated by Bialoszewski et al. The study involved 24 patients of both sexes subjected to lower limb lengthening using the Ilizarov method who had developed edema of the thigh or leg of the lengthened extremity. The mean age of the patients was 21 years. The patients were randomized into two groups of twelve, which were then subjected to 10 days of standard physiotherapy. The study group was additionally treated with kinesiology taping (lymphatic application), while the control group received standard lymphatic drainage. The application of kinesiology taping in the study group produced a decrease in the circumference of the thigh and leg statistically more significant than that following lymphatic drainage. It was concluded that kinesiology taping significantly reduced lower limb edema in patients treated by the Ilizarov method and that the application of kinesiology taping produced a significantly faster re-education of the edema compared to standard lymphatic massage.
Hsu et al investigated the effect of elastic taping on kinematics, muscle activity and strength of the scapular region in baseball players with shoulder impingement. Seventeen baseball players with shoulder impingement were recruited from three amateur baseball teams. All subjects were taped with both the kinesiology tape and a placebo tape over the lower trapezius muscle. The kinesiology tape resulted in positive changes in scapular motion and muscle performance. The results supported its use as a treatment aid in managing shoulder impingement problems.
What came first, the chicken or the egg? The fundamental premise behind this question can be applied to orthopedic physical therapy as well. What came first, your pinched nerve, your shoulder pain, your elbow pain, or your poor posture? Let me explain.
We live in a society dominated by “slouching” syndrome. We prefer to sit in a soft chair with forward flexed posture instead of a firm chair with erect and supported posture. Draw a line from the middle of your ear to the center of your shoulder to the center of your hip joint and, bio-mechanically speaking, you are lookin’ pretty good
We need to maintain a normal inward curve at our necks and low back as well as a normal outward curve in our mid backs.
So what is the connection? Sit or stand with really slouched shoulders and attempt to raise your arm overhead. Now, sit straight and try it again. You have much more freedom of motion in your shoulder while sitting straight. Now, think about how many times you reach during the day with forward flexed posture. Each and every reach in this forward position will cause a “pinch” or impingement of your rotator cuff tendon in your shoulder. According to Flatow et al in the American Journal of Sports Med, all of us, physiologically, have a certain amount of “normal” impingement in our shoulders. Compound this “normal” impingement with the exaggerated impingement that occurs with poor posture and you have a recipe for the pain of rotator cuff tendonitis. Refer to my post on Impingement Syndrome for more details.
Do you know of anyone who has chronic tennis elbow (pain on outside of elbow) or golfers elbow (pain on inside of elbow)? You may want to mention to them the results that were published in an article in the journal Sports Health. The authors evaluated 102 patients with documented cervical radiculopathy ie pinched nerve in the neck and found that more than half of the patients also had medial epicondylitis ie golfers elbow. The prevalence of tennis elbow and neck involvement has also been documented and Berglund et al article is one example. What this means is that your therapist and YOU need to be aware of this connection and the appropriate steps need to be taken to rule out your neck as the CAUSE of your elbow symptoms.
